Which Animal Does The Lord Not Behead?

Motif of medieval romance

The beheading game is a literary trope institute in Irish mythology and medieval chivalric romance. The trope consists of a stranger who arrives at a royal courtroom and challenges a hero to an commutation of blows: the hero may decapitate the stranger, but the stranger may then inflict the same wound upon the hero. The supernatural nature of the stranger, which makes this possible, is but revealed when he retrieves his decapitated head. When the hero submits himself to the return blow, he is rewarded for his valor and is left with just a pocket-size wound. The hero is seen every bit coming of historic period by undergoing the exchange of blows, and his symbolic decease and rebirth is represented by the feigned render blow. Originating in the Irish legend of the Fled Bricrenn, the beheading game appears in several Arthurian romances, most notably Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

The beheading game has been analysed for its human relationship with the Arthurian concept of chivalry. At no signal does the Green Knight specify that he must be beheaded, only that he will return whatever blow is struck. When Gawain makes the impulsive decision to decapitate the Knight, the values of Camelot crave that he subject field himself to death in the name of upholding the rules of the challenge. Gawain is incapable of bravely submitting to expiry, instead concealing a magic girdle that he believes volition keep him from damage, thus demonstrating that he values survival over honour.

Description and history [edit]

The trope of the beheading game appears in 11 recorded works of medieval literature. Of these, two are Irish, iv French, two German, and iii English language. The trope is believed to take originated in Irish mythology, the mythic cycles of which were subsequently adapted into twelfth-century French chivalric romance. From at that place, the trope was introduced in 13th-century German and 14th-century English verse.^[1] The beheading game itself is adjusted from the motif of the Substitution of Blows, in which a stranger propositions a hero with a challenge: the hero may strike a blow upon the stranger, but they agree to have that aforementioned blow returned to them the post-obit 24-hour interval.^[2] The unwritten folkloric origins of the trope remain unknown, but some philological scholars speculate that the Exchange of Blows derives from an aboriginal myth in which Summer and Winter do boxing at the change of seasons.^[1]

In its near basic grade, the beheading tale concerns the appearance of a mysterious, possibly supernatural figure who appears at a royal courtroom and proposes a challenge for the members of said courtroom: they may effort to behead the stranger with an axe, but in doing so, the volunteer agrees to be beheaded at a afterward betoken in time. The hero who volunteers to take part in this challenge successfully beheads the stranger, who so retrieves his decapitated head and departs. After the hero spends the resultant waiting period mentally preparing himself for the retributory accident, the stranger returns and either feigns the accident entirely or leaves but a small wound on the hero'south neck.^[3] The champion is congratulated for succeeding in the true challenge, which is to honour the parameters of the game by submitting himself to certain decease.^[4] Sometimes the beheading game is expanded into a disenchantment narrative, as in Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle and The Turke and Sir Gawain.^[five] In tales such every bit this, after the initial exchange, the stranger asks the hero to decollate him over again, which then frees the challenger of whatever curse has fabricated him monstrous.^[6]

Celtic mythology [edit]

The earliest recorded incidence of the trope of the beheading game is in the Fled Bricrenn (Bricriu's Feast),^[vii] part of the Ulster Bike of Irish mythology.^[eight] The overarching plot of the Fled Bricrenn involves three heroes – Cú Chulainn, Conall Cernach, and Lóegaire Búadach – who are each independently told by the titular graphic symbol that they are worthy of the Champion's Portion and are invited to a feast in their accolade. When the iii men make it at Bricriu'southward Feast, they are put through a series of trials, often involving supernatural figures, to determine which among them is superior.^[9] Some written versions of the Fled Bricrenn involve 2 iterations of the beheading game. 1, titled "The Champion's Deal", dates back to at least the ninth century, while the "Uath" episode may exist a later interpolation from when the manuscript was compiled in the eleventh century.^[10]

The "Uath" or "Terror" episode contains one of the first trials presented to the three heroes. A man named Uath challenges Cú Chulainn and the others to behead him with an axe, but warns them that they volition exist beheaded in turn the post-obit day. Consistent with the other episodes of the Fled Bricrenn, which posit Cú Chulainn every bit the superior warrior, he is the simply ane to take upwards Uath's challenge. When he presents himself for the return accident, Uath spares Cú Chulainn by striking him with the edgeless edge of the axe.^[11] The beheading game is repeated at the end of the Fled Bricrenn, in the episode titled "The Champion'southward Bargain". There, a strange churl arrives at the courtroom of Conchobar mac Nessa, the king of Ulster, and challenges its members to a beheading game. Three heroes take the boor's claiming but flee before the blow can exist returned; only Cú Chulainn submits himself to the axe. For his valor, the boor, revealed to be the trickster king Cú Roí in disguise, declares that Cú Chulainn deserves the Champion'southward Portion.^[12]

Arthurian romance [edit]

There are at least 7 accounts of the beheading game in Arthurian romance, all of which are believed to derive from the Fled Bricrenn.^[13] All of these adaptations take i major deviation from the source, nonetheless: while the Irish myth involves three rivals, Arthurian beheading game narratives involve a singular hero.^[fourteen] The first work of Arthurian literature to involve the beheading game is Chrétien de Troyes'south unfinished Perceval, the Story of the Grail. In the poem, Caradoc, a immature Knight of the Round Table, is tricked into participating in a beheading game by his sorcerous father, who arrives at King Arthur's court in disguise. He returns one twelvemonth later the original decapitation to strike his son with the flat of his sword and praise him for his bravery.^[fifteen] While Caradoc's narrative added more details to the game than were found in the Fled Bricrenn, the basic plot construction remains the same, as the test of loyalty and bravery inherent in the original work translated capably to the conventions of chivalric romance.^[sixteen] For this reason, the structure of the original Irish myth remains mostly intact in the French romances such equally La Mule sans frein, Hunbaut, and Perlesvaus.^[17] Besides the singularity of Caradoc's adventure, the one other change taken from the Irish gaelic is that, while Cú Chulainn'due south trial was the culmination of his life of adventure, for Caradoc, the beheading game is his initiation into the world of errantry.^[xviii]

Throughout Arthuriana, multiple knights are subjected to some iteration of the beheading game. In Perlesvaus, it is Lancelot who subjects himself to the game during his quest for the Holy Grail.^[19] In accordance with the balance of the text, his encounter with the stranger is viewed equally an illustration for Christian sacrifice. In returning to the site of the original beheading and offering himself as a sacrifice, Lancelot brings life to the ruined city, only as the sacrifice of Jesus was meant to salve humanity from destruction.^[xx] In Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, meanwhile, Gareth undergoes in his chapter a number of trials which he must overcome in guild to learn the claim and responsibilities of knighthood.^[21] One of these trials involves Lynette and Lyonesse, 2 noblewomen from afar who come up to Camelot asking for aid confronting four villains who are assailing them.^[22] Beset by his lust for Lyonesse, Gareth decides that he will consummate their relationship once all of these enemies have been defeated. To prevent this fornication from occurring, Lynette magically re-attaches the Red Knight's decapitated head so that in that location is e'er an enemy to defeat.^[23] Subsequently repeatedly beheading the Reddish Knight, Gareth decides that the noblest selection is to spare his enemy'south life, leaving the task incomplete and preserving his chastity.^[24]

The Arthurian knight most ofttimes subjected to the beheading game is Arthur's nephew Gawain, the hero of both La Mule sans frein and the Hunbaut. In the former, the beheading game is only ane of several trials which Gawain must endure in order to return a mule's magical bridle to its owner.^[25] Partway through his quest for the bridle and among a wood filled with malevolent wildlife, a churl allows Gawain to spend the nighttime in his castle equally long every bit he agrees to a beheading game. By submitting himself to the render blow, Gawain is spared and returns to his quest.^[26] Hunbaut, meanwhile, features a subversion of the beheading game: Gawain agrees to deliver the kickoff blow, after which he catches his opponent's severed caput. By preventing the challenger from reuniting his head and body, Gawain spares himself the return blow.^{[27] [28]}

Perhaps the best-known and most adult iteration of the beheading game in medieval romance, even so, is the late 14th century verse form Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.^{[29] [thirty]} The bearding Gawain-poet combines the beheading game with another type of exchange, the temptation.^[31] In the poem, the Green Knight arrives at Camelot on New Year's Day to propose a beheading game, with the volunteer asked to observe the knight in the Green Chapel one year hence.^[4] While on his mode to the chapel, Gawain encounters the Bertilaks, who suggest an substitution of winnings: Gawain may explore their castle while Lord Bertilak hunts, and at the end of the twenty-four hour period, they exchange whatsoever they accept acquired.^[32] When Lady Bertilak attempts to seduce Gawain, he reveals the kisses that she gave him to Lord Bertilak,^[33] but he does not disclose that she too provided him a magical girdle designed to go on the wearer from damage.^[34] When Gawain arrives at the chapel, the Green Knight, revealed to be Lord Bertilak in disguise, feigns the beheading blow twice, and on the 3rd swing, he leaves a minor wound on Gawain'south cervix as penalisation for his dishonesty well-nigh the girdle.^[35] Upon his return to Camelot, Gawain, ashamed of his cowardice, decides to continue wearing the girdle as a badge of shame.^[36]

Literary analysis [edit]

By taking the magic girdle from Lady Bertilak, Gawain fails to uphold the virtues of Camelot.

In both Celtic mythology and Arthurian romance, the head—and more than specifically, the taking of a head—was a central mechanism past which a hero could pass from adolescence into adulthood. This was possible either by decapitating an opponent, in which 1 could cement their status as a warrior, or past subjecting oneself to expiry through possible decapitation in a beheading game.^[37] Equally a result, most literary scholars analysing this motif have viewed the beheading game as a coming of age metaphor. Past subjecting themselves both to the possibility of death every bit well as a feigned fatal blow, heroes such equally Cú Chúlainn and Gawain experience a symbolic death which allows them to exist spiritually reborn as better men and warriors.^[38] Even more than symbolically, the threat of decease by decapitation tin be seen as a metaphor for circumcision. While the hero is initially threatened with a complete removal of the head, a blazon of castration, he is ultimately left with merely a small-scale wound, akin to the removal of the foreskin.^[39] The Bildungsroman aspects of the beheading game are particularly salient in Perceval and in Sir Gawain and the Greenish Knight. In the sometime, Caradoc's kickoff trial as a Knight of the Circular Tabular array involves his father's game, which serves every bit an introduction to his future errantry.^[18] In the latter, rather than returning to Camelot, the Green Knight demands that Gawain embark on a quest to the Green Chapel, and the road of trials allows the hero to develop physically, emotionally, and spiritually.^[twoscore]

The other central theme of the beheading game is that of cultural values. At the cease of the narrative, the hero is spared and the blow merely feigned, because he fulfilled the contract that was established at the start of the game.^[41] In this context, some scholars take seen the Gawain-poet as using Gawain's girdle to criticize the emptiness of the Arthurian concept of knightly. When the Green Knight first arrives at Camelot, he speaks of the honourable reputation that Arthur's knights possess, and proposes the game every bit a means of testing the merits of that reputation.^[42] While Arthurian chivalry emphasises the honourable nature of a sacrificial death, Gawain'south decision to behead the Green Knight, which and then requires him to fulfill the other side of the contract, is far more foolish than admirable.^[43] For Laura Ashe, an English professor at Worcester College, Oxford, the idea that Gawain must travel to the Light-green Chapel to uphold the chivalric ethics of Camelot, even knowing that it would bring death, demonstrates the foolishness of ideals that preserve honour over life.^[44] Additionally, Gawain is criticized for his decision to use the magic girdle that will supposedly preserve his life, demonstrating that he has accounted his life more than important than the concepts of honour he is meant to uphold.^[45] Literary critic Piero Boitani notes that Gawain is initially presented to the reader as "the perfect representative of the virtues which that club has elevated to principles of life", making his failure to uphold those values at the end of the narrative that much more disturbing.^[46]

Analyses of Gawain'southward failure to consummate the quest tend to focus on his concealment of the girdle.^[4] Other scholars have noted, however, that Gawain's failure begins simply with his response to the challenge. Unlike other iterations of the beheading game, the Green Knight does non specify that he must be decapitated, but that whatever accident is done to him volition be returned. Ashe suggests that the holly branch the Dark-green Knight carries in his other hand was a test, and that he wished for a clever knight to strike him with the branch rather than the axe.^[47] Victoria Fifty. Weiss of Lehigh University goes then far equally to deem the initial beheading scene "Gawain's first failure", criticizing the hero for making the impulsive decision to strike a fatal blow when at no betoken did the challenger specify that the game required a beheading.^[48]

The tone of the beheading game becomes darker with accommodation, and the magical elements are contradistinct. In Malory, for instance, severed heads exercise not speak, creating an air of finality in the activity that is just subverted when the challenger reattaches his head.^[49] This is mostly due to the differing connotations around beheading in Celtic and medieval English civilisation. For case, the Celts believed that decapitation was an honourable class of execution for a foe who had fought valiantly, while for the English, beheading was a penalisation reserved for traitors.^[50] The magical nature of the caput every bit the container of human being ability is also not present in the medieval English language as it is in Celtic belief,^[51] making the Green Knight a sort of infidel figure in a Christian world where decease, specially decapitation, is final.^[52] Elizabeth Scala, a medievalist with the University of Texas at Austin, has used this different tone to explicate why Gawain makes the decision to behead the Dark-green Knight. Whereas an Irish hero like Cú Chúlainn has enough experience with the supernatural to believe that his opponent will survive what should have been a fatal accident, Gawain has no reason to believe such a thing, and he is not faced with the gravity of his decision until the Light-green Knight retrieves his severed head.^[53]

Game studies [edit]

The deportment and motivations of the players in the beheading game motif take lent themselves to study not just in the realm of literary theory, but besides of game studies.^[54] Game studies relating to medieval literature oftentimes invoke the image created by the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga, whose 1938 Human Ludens created a paradigm for understanding the functions of games and play beyond civilization.^[55] Luden's image would place the beheading game within archaic civilisation, in which violent single combat was co-opted into recreation.^{[56] [57]} As society progressed into the medieval, this more than archaic form of violent sport remained integrated into game civilisation through tournaments.^[56] In add-on to a type of tournament, the beheading game might be seen as a game of dares, in which the hero'south reputation is dependent on his ability to answer a challenge.^[58]

Both the medieval tournament and the game of dares crave that the claiming be proposed without ulterior motive.^{[59] [60]} This is not present in the beheading game, in which the challenger's supernatural abilities allow him to deceive the hero,^[61] and his motivation goes beyond simple sport.^[62] Additionally, an constructive dare requires a symmetry of consequence: if the challenger were to complete the cartel himself, the stakes must exist every bit high every bit they are for his target.^[63] This symmetry is complicated by the beheading game: on the one mitt, the challenger's ability to survive his own decapitation proves an unfair advantage over a hero who has no such magic; on the other, the challenger must survive the start blow if he is to deliver its return.^[59]

By disguising both his supernatural abilities and his truthful motivations, the challenger exploits the differences Huizinga elucidates between play, a simple form of recreation which is devoid of existent-globe consequence, and game, which has a designated structure and purpose.^{[64] [65]} For the challenger, who is aware that no harm volition come to either party, the beheading game remains inside the realm of play, merely for the hero and the bystanders, the game is something more sinister.^[66] The beheading game can thus be seen as a godgame, in which a godlike game-maker designs a competition that appears unwinnable for their pawn, with the intention of awakening the hero to a greater truth of the universe.^[67] In the example of Sir Gawain and the Light-green Knight, the lesson to be learned is that chivalry, with its insistence on post-obit every rule which 1 is prescribed, is folly. To teach Gawain and the reader this lesson, the Gawain-poet and the Bertilaks place him in a double bind where, no thing what, a game rule must exist broken: if he forfeits his magic girdle to Bertilak, Gawain volition "lose" the beheading game through death, but if he conceals the girdle, he will lose the exchange of winnings.^[68]

Other iterations [edit]

The beheading game has found its way into contemporary civilisation by means of direct adaptations of the myths from which it originates. Due west. B. Yeats, for case, adapted Cú Chulainn'south feel into a play showtime titled The Golden Helmet and later rewritten in 1910 as The Greenish Helmet.^[69] In Yeats's iteration, the Red Man returns the yr after he is beheaded to demand a head of his own, and Cú Chulainn bravely offers his own head in cede.^[70] The story of Sir Gawain and the Light-green Knight, meanwhile, has been adapted several times, near recently in David Lowery'southward 2021 film The Green Knight, which stars Dev Patel every bit Gawain and Ralph Ineson every bit the Green Knight.^[71]

Outside of Great britain and Ireland, the closest analogue for the beheading game is establish in the Icelandic Sveins rímur Múkssonar,^[72] in which an ogre named the Grey Carle appears at the courtroom of the King of the Greeks and challenges its members, one past one, to a beheading game. The hero Sveinn is the commencement to oblige, successfully decapitating the Carle, only the Ogre retrieves and reattaches his severed head, informing Sveinn that he will render the adjacent twenty-four hour period to incur the same blow.^[73] It is believed that the stories of the Fled Bricrenn came to Republic of iceland through an intermediary English work that has since been lost.^[74] This exchange of mythologies too occurred in the reverse direction: The Turke and Sir Gawain is an adaptation of the Icelandic Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, albeit with an added beheading game. In both narratives, the hero accompanies an otherworldly stranger to a distant land, where both gain magical gifts, including invisibility, by which they can defeat an enemy. The Turke adds, however, an episode in which Gawain must decapitate his companion in order to lift the Turke's curse, an chemical element non found in the original.^[75]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Benson 1965, p. 11.
2. ^ Benson 1965, pp. xi–12.
3. ^ Wrigley 1996, p. 108.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Burrow 2001, p. 45.
5. ^ Thompson 1976, pp. 202–203.
6. ^ Friedman 1960, p. 269.
7. ^ Brewer 1973, p. ix.
8. ^ Boyd 2017, p. 151.
9. ^ Martin 1992, p. 74.
10. ^ Buchanan 1932, pp. 316–317.
11. ^ Benson 1965, pp. thirteen–14.
12. ^ Benson 1965, pp. xiv–fifteen.
13. ^ Loomis 1997, p. 59.
14. ^ Loomis 1997, p. lx.
15. ^ Burrow 2001, p. 43.
16. ^ Benson 1965, pp. twenty–21.
17. ^ Benson 1965, pp. 21–22.
18. ^ ^{a b} Benson 1965, p. 23.
19. ^ Brewer 1973, pp. 22–27.
20. ^ Ashe 2010, pp. 166–167.
21. ^ Sanders 2006, p. 34.
22. ^ Loomis 1997, p. 85.
23. ^ Loomis 1997, pp. 87–88.
24. ^ Sanders 2006, pp. 38–40.
25. ^ McInerney 2014, p. 8.
26. ^ Owen 1971, p. 254.
27. ^ Loomis 1997, p. 105.
28. ^ Thompson 1979, p. 73.
29. ^ Thompson 1976, p. 201.
30. ^ Weiss 1976, p. 361.
31. ^ Boitani 1982, pp. 60–61.
32. ^ Burrow 2001, p. 47.
33. ^ Burrow 2001, p. 50.
34. ^ Thompson 1976, p. 202.
35. ^ Benson 1965, pp. 231–240.
36. ^ Couch 2001, p. 52.
37. ^ Janes 2005, p. 22.
38. ^ Sadowski 1996, p. 222.
39. ^ Wrigley 1996, p. 109.
40. ^ Sadowski 1996, pp. 185–191.
41. ^ Martin 1992, p. 75.
42. ^ Benson 1965, p. 212.
43. ^ Ashe 2010, pp. 162–164.
44. ^ Ashe 2010, pp. 168–169.
45. ^ Ashe 2010, pp. 171–172.
46. ^ Boitani 1982, p. 67.
47. ^ Ashe 2010, p. 168.
48. ^ Weiss 1976, pp. 361–366.
49. ^ Tracy 2012, p. 206.
50. ^ Hill 2009, pp. 117–118.
51. ^ Tracy 2012, p. 211.
52. ^ Hill 2009, pp. 121–122.
53. ^ Scala 2002, pp. 49–51.
54. ^ Patterson 2015, p. 18.
55. ^ McCormick 2015, p. 209.
56. ^ ^{a b} Stevens 1972, p. seventy.
57. ^ Huizinga 1949, pp. forty–41.
58. ^ O'Neill 1991, p. 127.
59. ^ ^{a b} Martin 2009, p. 317.
60. ^ O'Neill 1991, pp. 134–135.
61. ^ Martin 2009, pp. 316–217.
62. ^ Pugh 2002, p. 542.
63. ^ O'Neill 1991, p. 135.
64. ^ Pugh 2002, pp. 525–526.
65. ^ Huizinga 1949, pp. 8–9.
66. ^ Martin 2009, pp. 312–316.
67. ^ Pugh 2002, pp. 526–527.
68. ^ Sprouse 2016, pp. 182–186.
69. ^ Sato 2019, p. 45.
70. ^ Sato 2019, pp. 46–47.
71. ^ Aronstein & Drummond 2021, pp. ninety–92.
72. ^ Tracy 2012, p. 212.
73. ^ Sveinsson 1957, p. 11.
74. ^ Sigurðsson 1988, p. 70.
75. ^ Power 1985, pp. 169–171.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beheading_game

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